Somatic embryogenesis offers the potential to clonally produce large numbers of low cost plants of many species. Somatic embryos develop without the surrounding nutritive tissues and protective seed coat, so considerable research has been devoted to causing somatic embryos to functionally mimic seeds with regard to efficient storage and handling qualities. The development of techniques for somatic embryogenesis in conifers has greatly improved the ability to culture conifer tissues in vitro and now offers the means to clonally propagate commercially valuable conifers of a number of species. However, all conifer species suffer from poor plantlet vigour.
It has been suggested to use abscisic acid (ABA) or osmoticum for enhancing storage levels in plant cells. For example, it was shown that somatic embryos of Theobroma cacao could be induced to accumulate fatty acids approaching the composition of commercial cocoa butter by increasing the sucrose concentration of the culture medium. Modifying the culture conditions by varying osmotic concentration and/or ABA content similarly improved lipid accumulation in Brassica napus L. somatic and microspore derived embryos as well as somatic embryos of carrot and celery. Also, the level of storage lipids in P. abies somatic embryos was improved by optimizing the ABA level to between 10-20 .mu.m, but the somatic embryos contained about 4% of the lipid level obtained by zygotic embryos.
Also, Japanese laid-open patent publication No. 1-218520 describes a process for producing plant body regenerative tissue. The process includes a step of cultivating a plant body regenerative tissue in a medium containing ABA and having an osmotic pressure of 180 to 2500. In order to control the osmotic pressure within the specific range, a non-toxic substance such as sugar, alcohol, an amino acid or glycol is added.
Water stress plays an important role in maintaining embryos in a maturation state (Kermode 1990, Crit. Res. Plant Sci. 9, 155-194). Low water content rather than ABA prevents precocious germination during later stages of development. This is important because precocious germination of embryos during development in seeds would be lethal during desiccation.
A conventional way to water stress plant cells grown in vitro is to increase the osmotic concentration of the culture medium through the use of plasmolysing osmotica. For example, increased concentrations of plasmolysing osmotica such as sucrose have been used to promote somatic embryo maturation of many plant species. Sucrose at levels up to 6% was found to improve somatic embryo development of some conifers but a smaller increase in sucrose from 1 to 3% was previously considered optimal for the maturation of white and Norway spruce somatic embryos. It seems that a higher concentration generally led to repressed embryo development. 3% sucrose is the concentration most commonly used for conifer somatic embryo maturation. Mannitol had a similar effect on maturation of conifer somatic embryos (Roberts 1991). Low levels of mannitol (2-6%) led to a doubling of the number of mature embryos recovered at the end of the maturation period; however, the treatment could only be applied, as a short pulse (1 week) as prolonged maturation treatment with mannitol became detrimental to further embryo maturation.
Poor response using sucrose and mannitol or other simple sugars and salts may be because such plasmolysing osmotica are absorbed by the symplast of plant cells. Such absorption facilitates adjustment of tissue osmotic potential (osmotic recovery) without lowering the tissue water content. Additionally, direct or indirect metabolic effects on specific plant metabolites can occur, due to utilization of the solute or its toxic effects.
Alternatives to plasmolysing osmotica are non-permeating high molecular weight compounds such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) or dextran. These compounds are usually available in a wide range of molecular weights. For example, PEG is available in molecular weights ranging from 200 to 35,000. However, only those with a molecular weight above 1000 to 3000 would be non-permeating (Carpita et al, 1979). This is because the large molecular size of these solutes excludes their passage through plant cell walls, so preventing entry into cells and plasmolysis, while still removing water. Consequently, their non-plasmolysing effect reduces tissue water content in a manner similar to the effects of water stress observed in cells of plants subjected to drought conditions. The effect is constant and cell turgor can only be restored by cells actively increasing their cellular solute concentrations. PEG has been most commonly used to apply water stress to whole plants, to osmotically prime whole seeds to synchronize germination and improve seedling vigour.
Embryo drying occurs naturally in most seeds, and has a role to play in the developmental transition between maturation and germination. Thus, desiccation led to enhanced germination of both zygotic and somatic embryos. Desiccation of whole somatic embryos is also an alternative method of germplasm storage. Somatic embryos produced continuously year-round could therefore be dried and stored until the appropriate planting season, or shipped to new locations.
A considerable amount of prior art references describe methods for the desiccation of angiosperm somatic embryos. Senaratna at al., in EP application 0300730, describe a method through which in vitro formed plant embryos are desiccated following the application of ABA or other types of environmental stress inducing desiccation tolerance. The angiosperm embryos are induced at the torpedo shaped stage with the source of ABA for a sufficient period of time to cause expression of desiccation tolerance. The induced embryos are then dried to provide stable, viable artificial seeds. In EP 0300730, Senaratna at al. emphasize on the importance of stimulating the embryo at the appropriate stage by the use of signals to develop tolerance to desiccation. It is stressed that if the signals are applied at the incorrect stage of development, the tissue will not respond properly. Angiosperm embryos can undergo maturation in the absence of ABA and it is suggested that ABA be supplied as late as possible during the maturation protocol and applied for a relatively short period of time. Hence, the timing and duration of ABA application seem to be critical.
Japanese laid-open patent publication No. 2-31624 discloses the use of ABA in plant cultures. ABA is used as part of a process for drying embryos prior to storage.
In PCT application No. WO 89/05575, a method for the production of synthetic seeds comprising dehydrated somatic embryos is described. The method, which is applicable to monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous embryos comprises maintaining the somatic embryos in an atmosphere having a relative humidity (r.h.) of from about 30 to about 85% for a period of time sufficient to reduce the moisture content of the embryos from about 85 to 65% to about 4 to 15%. The use of osmotically active materials, once the embryos are matured, is suggested.
Senaratna et al., in 1989, Plant Science, 65, pp. 253-259, describe the induction of desiccation tolerance in alfalfa somatic embryos by exogenous application of ABA in the form of a short pulse. Embryos are then dried to 10 to 15% of their moisture content and stored for at least 3 weeks in the dry state. Senaratna et al. also describe a method by which tolerance to desiccation is induced by exposing the somatic embryos to sub-lethal levels of low temperature, water, nutrient or heat stress prior to desiccation. However, it was demonstrated that some of these stress pre-treatments had deleterious effects on embryo maturation and seedling vigour.
Hence, the prior art literature on somatic embryos and artificial seeds shows that desiccation tolerance has been achieved in some angiosperm plant species such as alfalfa, geraniums, celery, brassica, carrots, corn, lettuce, orchardgrass and soybeans. Various methods have been suggested, which all appear to evolve around promoting desiccation tolerance by applying ABA and other stresses late in maturation and subsequently reducing the water content of the embryos. However, survival following desiccation of conifer somatic embryos has, at present, not been reported, as these methods are hot applicable to conifers.
The creation of artificial seeds in which somatic embryos are encapsulated in a hydrated gel has also been described. The encapsulated embryos may then be planted using traditional seed planters. The major drawback of encapsulation in a hydrated gel is the fact that it allows only limited storage duration. The following are examples of hydrated gels for encapsulation.
Japanese laid-open patent publication No. 2-46240 discloses a method by which an oxygen supplying substance is used to coat a plant embryo. The document also refers to the possible use of a water-soluble polymeric substance together with the oxygen supplying compound. Preferred oxygen supplying compounds are calcium perchlorate or barium perchlorate. The water soluble polymeric substances referred to are hydrated gels of sodium alginate, gelatin, mannan, polyacrylamide and carboxymethyl cellulose.
In Japanese laid-open application No. 63-133904, a method is described to coat plant embryos and nutrients with a water-soluble polymeric substance such as alginic acid and polyacrylamide. Polyethylene glycol is mentioned as an example of polymeric substance that can be used together with the water-soluble polymeric substances.
Japanese laid-open patent application No. 61-40708 describes a technique through which an embryo is encapsulated with nutrients, an anti-bacterial agent and a water-soluble polymeric substance which may include crosslinked polyethylene glycol. The role of the water-soluble polymer appears to be to keep moisture during storage of the encapsulated embryo.
In U.S. Pat. No. 4,615,141, Janick and Kitto describe a method for encapsulating asexual plant embryos. In this method, the embryos are pre-treated by increasing the sucrose concentration of the maintenance medium from normal levels to high levels, or by applying ABA. The hydrated embryos are then encapsulated in a hydrated coating material. The coating material dries to form a thin, non-toxic film enclosing one or more embryos, protecting the embryos during storage but readily redissolving in an aqueous solution. The use of ABA and increased sucrose is suggested to improve survival of the encapsulated embryos. Once the embryos have been encapsulated, they are dried at a temperature ranging from 20 to 30.degree. C. for a period of at least 5 hours.
In U.S. Pat. No. 4,777,762, Redenbaugh et al. describe a method for producing desiccated analogs of botanic seeds which are created by removing a portion of the water by slow or fast drying so that the plant tissue is no longer saturated with water. The method also involves encapsulating meristematic tissue in a hydrated gel or polymer and removing water by slow or fast drying. The formation of somatic embryos is induced and the embryos are then encapsulated in the gel or polymer followed by drying. Alternatively, the somatic embryos are desiccated to less than complete tissue saturation during, or at the end of, embryo development then encapsulated.
When the gels described above are used to encapsulate the somatic embryos either before or after dehydration, preferred gels are selected from hydrogels or polymers which contain water within the confines of the gel matrix but which can be dried as the plant tissue is being desiccated. One of the disadvantages of such a method is that controlled drying of the encapsulated embryos is difficult to achieve. In most instances double drying of embryos is necessary. Thus, desiccated embryos are encapsulated in the hydrogel, which leads to rehydration, then the embryos are redesiccated. Recently published data shows that somatic embryos encapsulated in hydrated gel without desiccation have a storage life restricted to a few months, even when refrigerated at above freezing temperatures.
In a 1991 review article concerning somatic embryogenesis and development of synthetic seed technology (Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 10:33-61, 1991), Gray et al. mention that synthetic seed technology for the forest products industry would be extremely beneficial. This is because forest conifers can be propagated economically only from natural seed and since improvement via conventional breeding is extremely time consuming due to the long conifer life cycle.
There has been a trend for using increasingly higher concentrations of ABA to promote the maturation of conifer somatic embryos. This trend probably results from a need to inhibit precocious germination which has become more apparent following the increasingly longer maturation times being used. Thus ABA was first successfully used by Hakman and von Arnold 1988 (Physiol. Plant. 72:579-587) and von Arnold and Hakman 1988 (J. Plant Physiol. 132:164-169), at 7.6 .mu.m. Dunstan et al. 1988 (Plant Sci. 58:77-84) subsequently found 12 .mu.M ABA to be better. Shortly after, Attree et al. 1990 (Can. J. Bot. 68:2583-2589) reported that 16 .mu.M was optimal. Roberts et al. 1990 (Physiologia Plantarum 78; 355-360) have shown that for some species of spruce, ABA at 30-40 .mu.M could be used to promote maturation and yield mature embryos with storage protein polypeptides comparable to zygotic embryos. Such high levels were necessary to prevent precocious germination and allow maturation to proceed. Dunstan et al. 1991 (Plant Sci. 76:219-228) similarly found that high levels could permit embryo maturation. Unfortunately, high ABA levels also increased the frequency of developmentally abnormal embryos. In the above reports concerning conifers, increased osmoticum was not included with the ABA.
Conifer somatic embryos appear different to somatic embryos of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous angiosperm species in that ABA should be supplied as early as possible in maturation protocols in order to promote embryo maturation. Merely reducing or eliminating auxin and cytokinin levels, as has been successful for maturation of somatic embryos of many angiosperm species (Ammirato 1983, Handbook of Plant Cell Culture, Vol. 1, pp. 82-123) led to infrequent or poor maturation in conifer embryos and more often resulted in browning and death of the immature somatic embryos. Furthermore, it appears that ABA should be applied for longer periods and at higher levels than generally applied to angiosperm somatic embryos.
In U.S. Pat. No. 5,036,382, Gupta et al. describe a method for developing tissue culture induced coniferous somatic embryos into well-developed cotyledonary embryos. The method comprises a multi-stage culturing process in which early stage embryos are cultured on a late stage medium comprising a significantly higher osmotic potential along with ABA and an absorbent material to gradually reduce the level of available ABA over time. A critical aspect of this method lies in the inclusion of the absorbent material in the embryo development medium. Absorbent materials suggested include activated charcoal and silicates. The absorbent is used to slowly reduce the ABA and remove metabolic waste products.
The method also suggests the use of osmoticants to control osmotic potential. A preferred osmoticant suggested is sucrose in amounts in the range of 2 to 3%. Another osmoticant that is suggested by Gupta et al. is PEG. Gupta et al. mention that PEG 8000 was evaluated and found to be a superior osmoticant, stating that the reasons for its superior performance compared with other materials is not entirely clear. Gupta et al. also suggest that polyethylene or polypropylene glycols of other molecular weights are believed to be equally useful. According to U.S. Pat. No. 5,036,007, the combination of osmoticants is to be modified at some point during the development stage. In fact, the osmotic concentration is gradually increased during development.
In U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,957,866 and 5,041,832, Gupta et al. describe a method for reproducing coniferous trees by somatic embryogenesis using plant tissue culture techniques. The method consists of placing coniferous somatic embryos in a maturation medium initially comprising no ABA and a low osmoticant concentration. ABA is then added and the levels of osmoticant are raised for the final stage of development. The osmoticants suggested by Gupta et al. are, sugars such as sucrose, myo-inositol, sorbitol and mannitol.
In U.S. Pat. No. 5,034,326, Pulman et al. describe a method for reproducing coniferous plants by somatic embryogenesis using adsorbent materials in the development stage media. The adsorbent material (activated charcoal being a preferred embodiment) is used to gradually reduce the concentration of ABA present in the medium used in the development stage. The purpose of this reduction in ABA is to follow the natural tendency in embryo development. As development approaches completion, the presence of lesser amounts of ABA is required.
In PCT application WO 91/01629, Roberts describes a process for assisting germination of spruce somatic embryos that comprises partially drying the embryo at humidities of less than about 99.9%. Also described is a process to differentiate somatic embryos of conifers that comprises contacting embryogenic calli with a medium containing ABA. Roberts also suggest that a medium having a sucrose concentration of 2 or 3.4%, which is used between the maturation treatments and the germination media, promotes root and shoot elongation. Roberts mentions that the humidity range that can be used for partial drying of somatic embryos without lethal effect is about 85 to 99.9% which results in only a very small (5-10%) moisture loss.
In a study published in Can. J. Bot., Vol. 68, 1990, pp. 1086-1090, Roberts et al. mention that conifer somatic embryos (interior spruce) do not survive desiccation at room humidity, but that partial drying at very high humidity promoted germination up to 90%. Roberts et al. also refer to the fact that drying embryos over a range of r.h. indicated that r.h. of 81% or lower was lethal to conifer embryos. This can be further visualized at Table 3 of the report where the effects of partial drying at different r.h. on germination are shown. It can be seen that very small levels of germination are obtained following drying at a r.h. of 90% and that no germination is observed when r.h. of 81% and 75% are used. Based on those results, Roberts concluded that only a mild drying of the somatic embryos was possible to permit normal germination and that the spruce somatic embryos did not tolerate desiccation to zygotic levels. Spruce somatic embryos did survive and undergo improved vigour following a partial drying treatment in an environment of very high humidity (over 95% humidity) during which time only 5% of moisture was removed.
Later, Roberts et al. (J. Plant Physiol., 138, pp. 1-6, 1991) emphasize that somatic embryos from a number of species, including spruce, are sensitive to severe water loss and show decreased survival following desiccation. In this paper, Roberts shows that Sitka spruce somatic embryos do not survive desiccation, even though high frequency and synchronized germination could be obtained following partial drying of the embryos.
Hence, despite attempts to desiccate conifer somatic embryos following ABA maturation, survival has not been described.
Desiccation of conifer somatic embryos would be desirable to enable somatic embryos to be stored for very long periods. Storage times of desiccated embryos may be further extended by storing frozen embryos. The ability to survive prolonged storage is important considering the long life cycles of conifers and the length of time required to evaluate in vitro produced trees. This would then be an alternative method of germplasm storage, from which somatic embryos could later be reinduced. Tissues able to survive freezing in liquid nitrogen are considered to be capable of survival following storage for indefinite periods.
For nearly all plant species, in vitro techniques are more costly in comparison to traditional methods of seeding. Somatic embryos also usually require pre-germination and greenhouse acclimatization prior to planting in the field. To overcome these problems, several methods have been suggested. Fluid drilling has been used for pre-germinated seeds. However, fluid drilling requires new planting techniques, specialized machinery and does not allow for precision at planting of embryos or plants.
In conclusion, the prior art would appear to suggest that currently available techniques have failed in providing strong conifer somatic embryos and desiccated conifer somatic embryos suitable for encapsulation. Conifer somatic embryos require particular plant growth regulator conditions in order to develop, and do not follow the developmental pattern of the more advanced angiosperms. Furthermore, permeating osmotica have been shown to be detrimental to late embryo stages. Therefore, applying short term ABA and osmotic treatments late in embryo development to achieve desiccation tolerance is not feasible for conifers and other methods are required.